Specimen chambers have been an integral part of the history of microscopy and a number of designs have been published over the years describing systems that offer excellent optical properties while allowing specimens to be maintained for varying amounts of time. The basic requirements for live-cell imaging chamber configurations range from simple microscope slides with sealed coverslips to elaborate and complex designs that control a host of environmental variables. The literature references in this section describe simple chambers, perfusion systems, and enclosed microscope incubators that enable a significant degree of control over the imaging environment.

Atkins, D., Fully enclosing chambers for environmental control in live cell microscopy., International Biotechnology Laboratory 20: 20-21 (2002). | IBL |

Baumgardner, J. E. and Otto, C. M., In vitro intermittent hypoxia: Challenges for creating hypoxia in cell culture., Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology 136: 131-139 (2003).
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Berg, H. C. and Block, S. M., A miniature flow cell designed for rapid exchange of media under high-power microscope objectives., Journal of General Microbology 130: 1915-1920 (1984). | PubMed |

Burrows, M. T., A method of furnishing a continuous supply of new medium to a tissue culture in vitro., Anatomical Record 6: 141-144 (1912). | Anatomical Record |

Chabala, L. D., Sheridan, R. E., Hodge, D. C., Power, J. N., and Walsh, M. P., A microscope stage temperature controller for the study of whole-cell or single-channel currents., Pflügers Archiv (European Journal Of Physiology) 404: 374-377 (1985). | PubMed |

Chen, S. S., Revoltella, R. P., Papini, S., Michelini, M., Fitzgerald, W., Zimmerberg, J., and Margolis, L., Multilineage differentiation of rhesus monkey embryonic stem cells in three-dimensional culture systems., Stem Cells 21: 281-295 (2003). | PubMed |

Chiu, D. t., Jeon, N. L., Huang, S., Kane, R. S., Wargo, C. J., Choi, I. S., Ingber, D. E., and Whitesides, G. M., Patterned deposition of cells and proteins onto surfaces by using three-dimensional microfluidic systems., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97: 2408-2413 (2000). | PubMed |

Christiansen, G. S., Danes, B., Allen, L., and Leinfelder, P. J., A culture chamber for the continuous biochemical and morphological study of living cells in tissue culture., Experimental Cell Research 5: 10-15 (1953). | PubMed |

Datyner, N. B., Gintant, G. A., and Cohen, I. S., Versatile temperature controlled tissue bath for studies of isolated cells using an inverted microscope., Pflügers Archiv (European Journal Of Physiology) 403: 318-323 (1985). | PubMed |

Delbridge, L. M., Harris, P. J., Pringle, J. T., Dally, L. J., and Morgan, T. O., A superfusion bath for single-cell recording with high-precision optical depth control, temperature regulation, and rapid solution switching., Pflügers Archiv (European Journal Of Physiology) 416: 94-97 (1990). | PubMed |

Eijgenstein, L. H. and Prop, F. J., A simple versatile large-surface tissue culture chamber for phase contrast photography and microcinematography., Experimental Cell Research 60: 464-466 (1970). | PubMed |

Finch, S. A. E. and Stier, A., A perfusion chamber for high-resolution light microscopy of cultured cells., Journal of Microscopy 151: 71-75 (1988). | PubMed |

Frey, B., Hartmann, M., Herrmann, M., Meyer-Pitroff, R. M., Sommer, K., and Bluemelhuber, G., Microscopy under pressure: An optical chamber system for fluorescence microscopic analysis of living cells under high hydrostatic pressure., Microscopy Research and Technique 69: 65-72 (2006). | PubMed |

Friend, J. V., Improvements to the functional design of the Roberts and Trevan type culture chamber., Journal of Microscopy 94: 79-82 (1971). | PubMed |

Gabridge, M. G., The chamber/dish: An improved vessel for cell and explant culture., In Vitro 17: 91-97 (1981). | PubMed |

Gomez, T. M., Harringan, D., Henley, J., and Robles, E., Working with Xenopus spinal neurons in live cell culture., Methods in Cell Biology 71: 129-156 (2003). | PubMed |

Haas, H. L., Schaerer, B., and Vosmansky, M., A simple perfusion chamber for the study of nervous tissue slices in vitro., Journal of Neuroscience Methods 1: 323-325 (1979).
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Hausen, P. and Riebesell, M., A simple flow-through micro-chamber for handling fragile, small tissue explants and single non-adherent cells., Methods in Cell Science 24: 165-168 (2002). | PubMed |

Heidemann, S. R., Lamoureux, P., Ngo, K., Reynolds, M., and Buxbaum, R. E., Open-dish incubator for live cell imaging with an inverted microscope., BioTechniques 35: 708-716 (2003). | PubMed |

Hibbs, A. R., Imaging live cells., in Confocal Microscopy for Biologists, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pages 279-323 (2004). | Amazon |

Hing, W. A., Poole, C. A., Jensen, C. G., and Watson, M., An integrated environmental perfusion chamber and heating system for long-term, high resolution imaging of living cells., Journal of Microscopy 199: 90-95 (2000). | PubMed |

Hofer, A., Nagel, F., Wonka, F., Krinke, H. E., Golfert, F., and Funk, R. H., A new perfusion cell chamber system for determination of heat shock effects by means of video-enhanced microscopy., Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 37: 667-669 (1999). | PubMed |

Hung, P. J., Lee, P. J., Sabounchi, P., Lin, R., and Lee, L. P., Continuous perfusion microfluidic cell culture array for high-throughput cell-based assays., Biotechnology and Bioengineering 89: 1-8 (2005). | PubMed |

Ince, C., van Dissel, J. T., and Diesselhoff, M. M. C., A Teflon culture dish for high-magnification microscopy and measurements in single cells., Pflügers Archiv (European Journal Of Physiology) 403: 240-244 (1985). | PubMed |

Ince, C., Ypey, D. L., Diesselhoff-Den Dulk, M. M. C., Visser, J. A. M., De Vos, A., and Van Furth, R., Micro-CO2-incubator for use on a microscope., Journal of Immunological Methods 60: 269-275 (1983). | PubMed |

Inoue, I., Wakamoto, Y., Moriguchi, H., Okano, K., and Yasuda, K., On-chip culture system for observation of isolated individual cells., Lab on a Chip 1: 50-55 (2001). | PubMed |

Kaplan, D., Bungay, P., Sullivan, J., and Zimmerberg, J., A rapid-flow perfusion chamber for high-resolution microscopy., Journal of Microscopy 181: 286-296 (1996). | PubMed |

Lin, P. C., Cheng, P. C., and Yu, H., An engineered microenvironment for multidimensional microscopy of live cells., Scanning 27: 284-292 (2005). | PubMed |

Lowndes, R. H. and Hallett, M. B., A versatile light microscope heating stage for biological temperatures., Journal of Microscopy 142: 371-374 (1985). | PubMed |

Martines, E., McGhee, K., Wilkinson, C., and Curtis, A., Parallel-plate flow chamber to study initial cell on a nanofeatured surface., IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience 3: 90-95 (2004). | PubMed |

Moncel, C. and Pouchelet, M., Precise thermostatic system permitting experimentation on living cells and prolonged microscopic observation., Zeitscrift für Wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie und für Mikroskopische Technic 70: 12-16 (1970).
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Myrdal, S. and Foster, M., Time-resolved confocal analysis of antibody penetration into living, solid tumor spherioids., Scanning 16: 155-167 (1994). | PubMed |

Payne, J. N., Cooper, J. D., MacKeown, S. T., and Horobin, R. W., A temperature controlled chamber to allow observation and measurement of uptake of fluorochromes into live cells., Journal of Microscopy 147: 329-335 (1987). | PubMed |

Pearce, B. R., Currie, D. N., Dutton, G. R., Hussey, R. E. G., Beale, R., and Pigott, R., A simple perfusion chamber for studying neurotransmitter release from cells maintained in monolayer culture., Journal of Neuroscience Methods 3: 255-259 (1981). | PubMed |

Pentz, S. and Horler, H., A variable cell culture chamber for 'open' and 'closed' cultivation, perfusion and high microscopic resolution of living cells., Journal of Microscopy 167: 97-103 (1992). | PubMed |

Picton, H. M., Danfour, M. A., Harris, S. E., Chambers, E. L., and Huntriss, J., Growth and maturation of oocytes in vitro., Reproduction (Supplement) 61: 445-462 (2003).
| PubMed |

Potter, S. M. and DeMarse, T. B., A new approach to neural cell culture for long-term studies., Journal of Neuroscience Methods 110: 17-24 (2001). | PubMed |

Poyton, R. O. and Branton, D., A multipurpose microperfusion chamber., Experimental Cell Research 60: 109-114 (1970). | PubMed |

Pouchelet, M. and Moncel, C., Microculture chamber for long term microscopic observation involving a continuous perfusion and thermoregulation device., Microscopica Acta 75: 352-360 (1974). | PubMed |

Reid, G., Amuzescu, B., Zech, E., and Flonta, M. L., A system for applying rapid warming or cooling stimuli to cells during patch clamp recording or ion imaging., Journal of Neuroscience Methods 111: 1-8 (2001). | PubMed |

Rieder, C. L. and Cole, R. W., Perfusion chambers for high-resolution video light microscopic studies of vertebrate cell monolayers: Some considerations and a design., Methods in Cell Biology 56: 253-275 (1998). | PubMed |

Richter, K. M. and Woodward, N. W., A versatile type of perfusion chamber for long-term maintenance and direct microscopic observation of tissues in culture., Experimental Cell Research 9: 585-587 (1955). | PubMed |

Roberts, D. C. and Trevan, D. J., A versatile microscope chamber for the study of the effects of environmental changes on living cells., Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society 79: 361-366 (1961). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., A separate and multipurpose tissue culture chamber., Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine 12: 1074-1083 (1954). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., The circumfusion system for multipurpose culture chambers. I. Introduction to the mechanics, techniques, and basic results of a 12-chamber (in vitro) closed circulatory system., Journal of Cell Biology 32: 89-112 (1967). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., Phase-contrast microscopy in living cells., Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society 83: 97-114 (1964). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., Special uses of the multipurpose tissue culture chamber., Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine 15: 310-312 (1954). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., Time-lapse cinemicrography of cells in tissue culture., Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital 116: 33-68 (1965). | PubMed |

Rose, G. G., Pomerat, C. M., Shindler, T. O., and Trunnell, J. B., A cellophane-strip technique for culturing tissue in multipurpose culture chambers., Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology 4: 761-769 (1958). | PubMed |

Roth, K. E., Reider, C. L., and Bowser, S. S., Flexible-substratum technique for viewing cells from the side: Some in vivo properties of primary (9 + 0) cilia in cultured kidney epithelia., Journal of Cell Science 8: 457-466 (1988). | PubMed |

Sakariassen, K. S., Aarts, P. A., de Groot, P. G., Houdijk, W. P. M., and Sixma, J. J., A perfusion chamber developed to investigate platelet interaction in flowing blood with human vessel wall cells, their extracellular matrix, and purified components., Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 102: 522 (1983). | PubMed |

Salih, V., Greenwald, S. E., Chong, C. F., Coumbe, A., and Berry, C. L., The development of a perfusion system for studies on cultured cells., International Journal of Experimental Pathology 73: 625-632 (1992). | PubMed |

Sevcik, G., Guttenberger, H., and Grill, D., A perfusion chamber with temperature regulation., Biotechnic and Histochemistry 68: 229-236 (1993). | PubMed |

Sluder, G., Nordberg, J. J., Miller, F. J., and Hinchcliffe, E. H., A sealed preparation for long-term observations of cultured cells., in Live Cell Imaging: A Laboratory Manual, Goldman, R. D., and Spector, D. L. (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pages 345-349 (2005). | Amazon |

Sprague, E. A., Steinbach, B. L., Nerem, R. M., and Schwartz, C. J., Influence of a laminar steady-state fluid-imposed wall shear stress on the binding, internalization, and degradation of low-density lipoproteins by cultured arterial endothelium., Circulation 76: 648-656 (1987). | PubMed |

Strange, K. and Spring, K. R., Methods for imaging renal tubule cells., Kidney International 30: 192-200 (1986). | PubMed |

Sykes, J. A. and Moore, E. B., A new chamber for tissue culture., Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 100: 125-127 (1959). | PubMed |

Sykes, J. A. and Moore, E. B., A simple tissue culture chamber., Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine 18: 288-297 (1960). | PubMed |

Toy, B. L. and Bardawil, W. A., A simple plastic perfusion chamber for continuous maintenance and cinematography of tissue cultures., Experimental Cell Research 14: 97-103 (1958). | PubMed |

Toyotomi, S. and Momose, Y., Temperature-controlled perfusion apparatus for microscope using transparent conducting film heater., American Journal of physiology 256: C214-217 (1989). | PubMed |

Vesely, P., Maly, J., Cumpelik, J., Pluta, M., and Tuma V., Improved spatial and temporal resolution in an apparatus for time-lapse, phase contrast cine light micrography of cells in vitro., Journal of Microscopy 125: 67-76 (1982). | PubMed |

Walcerz D. B. and Diller, K. R., Quantitative light microscopy of combined perfusion and freezing processes., Journal of Microscopy 161: 297-311 (1991). | PubMed |

Wetzels, J. F. M., Kribben, A., Burke, T. J., and Schrier, R. W., Evaluation of a closed perfusion chamber for single cell fluorescence measurements., Journal of Immunological Methods 141: 289-291 (1991). | PubMed |

White, P. R., Versatile perfusion chamber for living cells and organs., Science 152: 1758-1760 (1966). | PubMed |