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The technique of imaging living cells on the microscope stage has become an increasingly useful tool with the emergence of synthetic fluorophores and fluorescent proteins to serve as qualitative and quantitative reporters of intracellular structure and dynamics. Live-cell imaging now spans multiple modalities, including widefield (fluorescence, phase contrast, and differential interference contrast), laser scanning confocal, multiphoton, and spinning disk microscopy. This section features a bibliography of literature sources for books, review articles, and the original research reports on the wide spectrum of methodologies currently being implemented for studying living cells.

• Adams, M. C., Salmon, W. C., Gupton, S. L., Cohan, C. S., Wittmann, T., Prigozhina, N., and Waterman-Storer, C. M., A high-speed multispectral spinning-disk confocal microscope system for fluorescent speckle microscopy of living cells Methods 29: 29-41 (2003).
• Andrews, D. A., Harper, I. S., and Swedlow, J. R., To 5D and Beyond: Quantitative fluorescence microscopy in the postgenomic era., Traffic 3: 29-36 (2002)
• Bacia, K. and Schwille, P., A dynamic view of cellular processes by in vivo fluorescence auto- and cross-correlation spectroscopy., Methods 29: 74-85 (2003)
• Bahlmann, K., Jakobs, S., and Hell, S. W., 4Pi-confocal microscopy of live cells., Ultramicroscopy 87: 155-164 (2001)
• Balaji, J., Desai, R., and Maiti, S., Live Cell Ultraviolet Microscopy: A comparison between two- and three-photon excitation., Microscopy Research and Technique 63: 67-71 (2004).
• Banker, G. and Goslin, K. (eds.), Culturing Nerve Cells, 2nd Edition, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 666 pages (2002).
• Böcker, W., Rolf, W., Muller, W. U., and Streffer C., A fast autofocus unit for fluorescence microscopy. , Physics in Biology and Medicine 42: 1981-1992 (1997).
• Campagnola, P. J., Wei, M., Lewis, A., and Loew, L. M., High-resolution nonlinear optical imaging of live cells by second harmonic generation., Biophysical Journal 77: 3341-3349 (1999).
• Carrington, W., Imaging live cells in 3D using wide-field microscopy with image restoration., in Confocal and Two-Photon Microscopy: Foundations, Applications, and Advances, Diaspro, A. (ed.), Wiley-Liss, Inc., New York, pages 333-346 (2002).
• Celis, J. E. (ed.), Cell Biology: A Laboratory Handbook, 3rd Edition, Volume 3, Elsevier Academic Press, New York, 527 pages (2006).
• Chalfie, M. and Kain, S. R. (eds.), Green Fluorescent Protein: Properties, Applications, and Protocols, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 443 pages (2006).
• Chamberlain, C. and Hahn, K. M., Watching Proteins in the Wild: Fluorescence methods to study protein dynamics in living cells., Traffic 1: 755-762 (2000).
• Chen, T., Zeng, S., Luo, Q., Zhang, Z., and Zhou, W., High-order photobleaching of green fluorescent protein inside live cells in two-photon excitation microscopy., Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 291: 1272-1275 (2002).
• Chow, S. K., Hakozaki, H., Price, D. L., Maclean, N. A. B., Deerinck, T. J., Bouwer, J. C., Martone, M. E., Peltier, S. T., and Ellisman, M. H., Automated microscopy system for mosaic acquisition and processing., Journal of Microscopy 222: 76-84 (2006).
• Conn, M. P. (ed.), Green Fluorescent Protein; Methods in Enzymology, Volume 302, Academic Press, New York, 490 pages (1999).
• Dailey, M. E., Maintaining live cells and tissue slices in the imaging setup., in Imaging Neurons: A Laboratory Manual, Yuste, R., Lanni, F., and Konnerth, A. (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pages 10.1-10.7 (2000).
• Dailey, M. E., Marrs, G. S., and Kurpius, D., Maintaining live cells and tissue slices in the imaging setup., in Imaging in Neuroscience and Development: A Laboratory Manual, Yuste, R. and Konnerth, A. (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pages 1-8 (2005).
• Day, R. N., Image protein behavior inside the living cell., Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 230: 1-6 (2005).
• Day, R. N. and Schaufele, F., Imaging molecular interactions in living cells., Molecular Endocrinology 19: 1675-1686 (2005).
• Delaney, S., Environmental control for live cell imaging., Imaging and Microscopy 1/2005: 40-41 (2005).
• De Lange, F., Cambi, A., Huijbens, R., De Bakker, B., Rensen, W., Garcia-Parajo, M., Van Hulst, N., and Figdor, C. G., Cell Biology Beyond the Diffraction Limit: Near-field scanning optical microscopy., Journal of Cell Science 114: 4153-4160 (2001).
• Dirks, R. W., Molenaar, C., and Tanke, H. J., Visualizing RNA molecules inside the nucleus of living cells., Methods 29: 51-57 (2003).
• Dormann, D. and Weijer, C. J., Imaging of cell migration., The EMBO Journal 25: 3480-3493 (2006).
• Dunn, G. A. and Jones, G. E., Cell Motility Under the Microscope: Vorsprung durch Technik., Nature Reviews 5: 667-672 (2004).
• Ehrhardt, D., GFP technology for live cell imaging., Current Opinion in Cell Biology 6: 622-628 (2003).
• Elangovan, M., Day, R. N., and Periasamy, A., PNanosecond fluorescence resonance energy transfer-fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy to localize the protein interactions in a single living cell., Journal of Microscopy 205: 3-14 (2001).
• Emptage, N. J., Fluorescent imaging in living systems., Current Opinion in Pharmacology 1: 521-525 (2001).
• Fehr, M., Okumoto, S., Deuschle, K., Persson, J., Kozhukh, L., Lalonde, S., and Frommer, W. B., Development and use of fluorescent nanosensors for metabolite imaging in living cells., Biochemical Society Transactions 33: 287-290 (2005).
• Firestone, L., Cook, K., Culp, K., Talsania, N., and Preston, K., Comparison of autofocus methods for automated microscopy., Cytometry 12: 195-206 (1991).
• Fleming, S. L. and Rieder, C. L., Flattening Drosophila cells for high-resolution microscopic studies of mitosis in vitro., Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton 56: 141-146 (2003).
• Fletcher, D. A. and Theriot, J. A., An introduction to cell motility for the physical scientist., Physical Biology 1: T1-T10 (2004).
• Focht, D. C., Observation of live cells in the microscope., in Cells: A Laboratory Manual, Spector, D. L., Goldman, R. D., and Leinwand, L. A. (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pages 75.1-75.13 (1998).
• Freshney, R. I., Culture of Animal Cells: A Manual of Basic Technique, 5th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 642 pages (2005).
• Galperin, E., Verkhusha, V. V., and Sorkin, A., Three-chromophore FRET microscopy to analyze multiprotein interactions in living cells., Nature Methods 1: 209-217 (2004).
• Gerlich, D., Mattes, J., and Eils, R., Quantitative motion analysis and visualization of cellular structures., Methods 29: 3-13 (2003).
• Geusebroek, J., Cornelissen, F., Smeulders, A. W. M., and Geerts, H., Robust autofocusing in microscopy., Cytometry 39: 1-9 (2000).
• Giuliano, K. A., Post, P. L., Hahn, K. M., and Taylor, D. L., Fluorescent Protein Biosensors: Measurement of molecular dynamics in living cells., Annual Reviews Biophysical Biomolecular Structure 24: 405-434 (1995).
• Goldman, R. D. and Spector, D. L. (eds.), Live Cell Imaging: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 631 pages (2005).
• Hahn, K. and Toutchkine, A., Live-cell fluorescent biosensors for activated signaling proteins., Current Opinion in Cell Biology 14: 167-172 (2002).
• Haraguchi, T., Live Cell Imaging: Approaches for studying protein dynamics in living cells., Cell Structure and Function 27: 333-334 (2002).
• Harms, G. S., Cognet, L., Lommerse, P. H. M., Blab, G. A., and Schmidt, T., Autofluorescent Proteins in Single-Molecule Research: Applications to live cell imaging microscopy., Biophysical Journal 80: 2396-2408 (2001).
• Heidemann, S. R., Lamoureux, P., Ngo, K., Reynolds, M., and Buxbaum, R. E., Open-dish incubator for live cell imaging with an inverted microscope., BioTechniques 35: 708-716 (2003).
• Hellen, E. H. and Alexrod, D., An automatic focus/hold system for optical microscopes., Review of Scientific Instruments 61: 3722-3725 (1990).
• Herman, B. and Lemasters, J. J. (eds.), Optical Microscopy: Emerging Methods and Applications, Academic Press, New York, 441 pages (1993).
• Hicks, B. W. (ed.), Green Fluorescent Protein: Applications and Protocols; Methods in Molecular Biology, Volume 183, Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey, 394 pages (2002).
• Hibbs, A. R., Imaging live cells., in Confocal Microscopy for Biologists, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pages 279-323 (2004).
• Hinchcliffe, E. H., Using long-term time-lapse imaging of mammalian cell cycle progression for laboratory instruction and analysis., Cell Biology Education 4: 284-290 (2005).
• Hiraoka, Y., Shimi, T., and Haraguchi, T., Multispectral imaging fluorescence microscopy for living cells., Cell Structure and Function 27: 367-374 (2002).
• Hoffmann, C., Gaietta, G., Bunemann, M., Adams, S. R., Oberdorff-Maass, S., Behr, B., Vilardaga, J., Tsien, R. Y., Ellisman, M., and Lohse, M. J., A FlAsH-based FRET approach to determine G protein-coupled receptor activation in living cells., Nature Methods 2: 171-176 (2005).
• Hu, C., Chinenov, Y., and Kerppola, T., Visualization of interactions among bZIP and Rel family proteins in living cells using bimolecular fluorescence complementation., Molecular Cell 9: 789-798 (2002).
• Hu, C. and Kerppola, T. K., Simultaneous visualization of multiple protein interactions in living cells using multicolor fluorescence complementation analysis., Nature Biotechnology 21: 539-545 (2003).
• Iborra, F., Cook, P. R., and Jackson, D. A., Applying microscopy to the analysis of nuclear structure and function., Methods 29: 131-141 (2003).
• Isshiki, M., Ying, Y., Fujita, T., and Anderson, R. G. W., A molecular sensor detects signal transduction from caveolae in living cells., The Journal of Biological Chemistry 277: 43389-43398 (2002).
• Inoué, S. and Spring, K. R.,Video Microscopy: The Fundamentals, 2nd Edition., Plenum Press, New York, 740 pages (1987).
• Jaiswal, J. K., Goldman, E. R., Mattoussi, H., and Simon, S. M., Use of quantum dots for live cell imaging., Nature Methods 1: 73-78 (2004).
• Jaiswal, J. K., Mattoussi, H., Mauro, J. M., and Simon, S. M., Long-term multiple color imaging of live cells using quantum dot bioconjugates., Nature Biotechnology 21: 47-51 (2003).
• Jones, J. T., Myers, J. W., Ferrell, J. E., and Meyer, T., Probing the precision of the mitotic clock with a live-cell fluorescent biosensor., Nature Biotechnology 22: 306-312 (2004).
• Kaihara, A., Kawai, Y., Sato, M., Ozawa, T., and Umezawa, Y., Locating a protein-protein interaction in living cells via split Renilla luciferase complementation., Analytical Chemistry 75: 4176-4181 (2003).
• Kam, Z., Hanser, B., Gustafsson, M. G. L., Agard, D. A., and Sedat, J. W., Computational adaptive optics for live three-dimensional biological imaging., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98: 3790-3795 (2001).
• Kam, Z., Zamir, E., and Geiger, B., Probing molecular processes in live cells by quantitative multidimensional microscopy., Trends in Cell Biology 11: 329-334 (2001).
• Kawai, H., Suzuki, T., Kobayashi, T., Mizuguchi, H., Hayakawa, T., and Kawanishi, T., Simultaneous imaging of initiator/effector caspase activity and mitochondrial membrane potential during cell death in living HeLa cells., Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1693: 100-110 (2004).
• Kikuchi, K., Small molecule-based FRET sensors which enable ratiometric imaging of living cells., Bioimages 12: 55-60 (2004).
• Khodjakov, A. and Rieder, C. L., Imaging the division process in living tissue culture cells., Methods 38: 2-16 (2006).
• Kohlwein, S. D., PThe beauty of the yeast: Live cell microscopy at the limits of optical resolution., Microscopy Research and Technique 51: 511-529 (2000).
• Kron, S. J. and LeSage, A. J., Design and implementation of algorithms for focus automation in digital imaging time-lapse microscopy., Cytometry 49: 159-169 (2002).
• Lacey, A. J. (ed.), Light Microscopy in Biology: A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, 452 pages (1999).
• Landry, S., McGhee, P. L., Girardin, R. J., and Keeler, W. J., Monitoring Live Cell Viability: Comparative study of fluorescence, oblique incidence reflection and phase contrast microscopy imaging techniques., Optics Express 12: 5754-5759 (2004).
• Lange, F., Cambi, A., Huijbens, R., Bakker, B., Rensen, W., Garcia-Parajo, M., Hulst, N., and Figdor, C. G., Cell Biology Beyond the Diffraction Limit: Near-field scanning optical microscopy., Journal of Cell Science 114: 4153-4160 (2001).
• Lemasters, J. J., Confocal microscopy of single living cells., in Fluorescence Imaging Spectroscopy and Microscopy, Wang, X. F. and Herman, B. (eds.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pages 157-178 (1996).
• Leo, A. H., Lahteenmaki, K., and Kreis, T. E., Vital staining and time-lapse video-intensified fluorescence microscopy of organelles in living cells., in Electronic Light Microscopy: Techniques in Modern Biomedical Microscopy, Shotton, D. (ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pages 157-180 (1993).
• Lichtman, J. W. and Fraser, S. E., The Neuronal Naturalist: Watching neurons in their native habitat., Nature Neuroscience Supplement 4: 1215-1220 (2001).
• Maddox, P., An introduction to live cell fluorescence imaging., American Laboratory 32: 30-35 (2000).
• Martin, R. M., Leonhardt, H., and Cardoso, M. C., DNA labeling in living cells., Cytometry 67A: 45-52 (2005).
• Mashanov, G. I., Tacon, D., Knight, A. E., Peckham, M., and Molloy, J. E., Visualizing single molecules inside living cells using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy., Methods 29: 142-152 (2003).
• Mason, W. T. (ed.), Fluorescent and Luminescent Probes for Biological Activity: A Practical guide to Technology for Quantitative Real-Time Analysis, Academic Press, New York, 647 pages (1999).
• McKenna, N. M. and Wang, Y. L., ACulturing cells on the microscope stage., in Fluorescence Microscopy of Living Cells in Culture: Part A. Fluorescent Analogs, Labeling Cells, and Basic Microscopy, Wang, Y. L. and Taylor, D. L. (eds.), Academic Press, New York, pages 195-205 (1989).
• McNeil, P. L., Incorporation of macromolecules into living cells., in Fluorescence Microscopy of Living Cells in Culture: Part A. Fluorescent Analogs, Labeling Cells, and Basic Microscopy, Wang, Y. L. and Taylor, D. L. (eds.), Academic Press, New York, pages 153-174 (1989).
• Michalet, X., Pinaud, F. F., Bentolila, L. A., Tsay, J. M., Doose, S., Li, J. J., Sunderson, G., Wu, A. M., Gambhir, S. S., and Weiss, S., Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics., Science 307: 538-544 (2005).
• Nalbant, P., Hodgson, L., Kraynov, V., Toutchkine, A., and Hahn, K. M., Activation of endogenous Cdc42 visualized in living cells., Science 305: 1615-1619 (2004).
• Niell, C. M. and Smith, S. J., Live optical imaging of nervous system development., Annual Review Physiology 66: 771-798 (2004).
• Ohmichi, Y. K., Peng, W., Miyoshi, D., Karimata, H., and Sugimoto, N., DNA-based biosensor for monitoring pH in vitro and in living cells., Biochemistry 44: 7125-7130 (2005).
• Paddock, S. W. (ed.), Confocal Microscopy: Methods and Protocols; Methods in Molecular Biology, Volume 22, Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey, 446 pages (1999).
• Pepperkok, R. and Shima, D., Fluorescence microscopy of living vertebrate cells., in Protein Localization by Fluorescence Microscopy: A Practical Approach, Allan, V. J. (ed.), Oxford University Press, New York, pages 109-132 (2000).
• Periasamy, A. (ed.), Methods in Cellular Imaging, Oxford University Press, New York, 434 pages (2001).
• Periasamy, A. and Day, R. N., Visualizing protein interactions in living cells using digitized GFP imaging and FRET microscopy., Methods in Cell Biology 58: 293-314 (1999).
• Periasamy, A. and Day, R. N. (eds.), Molecular Imaging: FRET Microscopy and Spectroscopy, Oxford University Press, New York, 312 pages (2005).
• Periasamy, A., Elangovan, M., Elliot, E., and Brautigan, D. L., Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) of green fluorescent fusion proteins in living cells., Methods in Molecular Biology 183: 89-100 (2002).
• Pertz, O. and Hahn, K. M., Designing biosensors for Rho family proteins—deciphering the dynamics of Rho family GTPase activation in living cells., Journal of Cell Science 117: 1313-1318 (2004).
• Piston, D. W., Imaging living cells and tissues by two-photon excitation microscopy., Trends in Cell Biology 9: 66-69 (1999).
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