Polarized Light Microscopy Literature References
Polarized light is a contrast-enhancing technique that improves the quality of the image obtained with birefringent materials when compared to other techniques such as darkfield and brightfield, differential interference contrast, phase contrast, Hoffman modulation contrast, and fluorescence. Polarized light microscopes have a high degree of sensitivity and can be utilized for both quantitative and qualitative studies targeted at a wide range of anisotropic specimens. Qualitative polarizing microscopy is very popular in practice, with numerous volumes dedicated to the subject. In contrast, the quantitative aspects of polarized light microscopy, which is primarily employed in crystallography, represent a far more difficult subject that is usually restricted to geologists, mineralogists, and chemists. However, steady advances made over the past few years have enabled biologists to study the birefringent character of many anisotropic sub-cellular assemblies.
Recommended Literature
- Weaver, R. Rediscovering polarized light microscopy. American Laboratory 35: 55-61 (2003).
- Inoue, S. Polarization microscopy. Current Protocols in Cell Biology Unit 4.9: 4.9.1-4.9.22 (2002).
- Massoumian, F., Juskaitis, R., Neil, M. A. A. and Wilson, T. Quantitative polarized light microscopy. Journal of Microscopy 209: 13-22 (2003).
- Maude, R. J., Buapetch, W. and Silamut, K. A simplified, low-cost method for polarized light microscopy. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81: 782-783 (2009).
- Liu, L., Trimachi, J., Oldenbourg, R. and Keefe, D. Increased birefringence in the meiotic spindle provides a new marker for the onset of activation in living oocytes. Biology of Reproduction 63: 251-258 (2000).
- Oldenbourg, R. A new view on polarization microscopy. Nature 381: 811-812 (1996).
- Inoue, S. A method for measuring small retardations of structures in living cells.Experimental Cell Research 2: 513-517 (1951).
- Sparenga, S. The importance of polarized light microscopy in the analytical setting.Microscopy and Microanalysis 14: 1032-1033 (2008).
- Oldenbourg, R. Polarized light microscopy of spindles. Methods in Cell Biology 61: 175-208 (1998).
- Ross, S., Newton, R., Zhou, Y. M., Haffegee, J., Ho, M. W., Bolton, J. P. and Knight, D.Quantitative image analysis of birefringent biological material. Journal of Microscopy 187:62-67 (1997).
- Land, E. Some aspects of the development of sheet polarizers. Journal of the Optical Society of America 41: 957-962 (1951).
- Taylor, E. and Cramer, W. Birefringence of protein solutions and biological systems.Biophysical Journal 3: 127-141 (1963).
Additional Literature Sources
- Bear, R. S. and Schmitt, F. O. The measurement of small retardations with the polarizing microscope. Journal of the Optical Society of America 26: 363 (1936).
- Brewster, D. On new properties of heat, as exhibited in its propagation along plates of glass. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 106: 46-114 (1816).
- Brewster, D. On the laws of polarisation and double refraction in regularly crystallized bodies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 108: 199-273 (1818).
- Cannon, C., Frank, F., Maier, W., Gray, W., Lawrence, A., Dervichian, G., Heckmann, K., Gotz. K. and Weber, K. Configurations and interactions of macro-molecule and liquid crystals.Discussions of the Faraday Society 25: 1-235 (1958).
- Cassim, J. and Taylor, E. Intrinsic birefringence of poly-γ-benzyl-L-glutamate, a helical polypeptide, and the theory of birefringence. Biophysical Journal 5: 531-551 (1965).
- Cassim, J., Tobias, P. and Taylor, E. Birefringence of muscle proteins and the problem of structural birefringence. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 168: 463-471 (1968).
- Cohen, L.B., Keynes, R.D. and Hille, B. Light scattering and birefringence changes during nerve activity. Nature 218: 438-441 (1968).
- Danuser, G. and Oldenbourg, R. Probing f-actin by tracking shape fluctuations of radial bundles in lamellipodia of motile cells. Biophysical Journal 79: 191-201 (2000).
- Diko, P., Ausloos, M. and Cloots, R. Polarized light microstructure analysis of melt-textured DyBa2Cu3O7-x ceramics. Journal of Materials Research 5: 1179-1186 (1996).
- Dongre, A., Bhisey, P. and Khopkar, U. Polarized light microscopy. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology, and Leprology 73: 206-208 (2007).
- Gupta, N. Biosensors technologies: Acousto-optic tunable filter-based hyperspectral and polarization imagers for fluorescence and spectroscopic imaging. Methods in Molecular Biology 503: 293-305 (2009).
- Hsien, Y., Richartz, M. and Yung, L. A generalized intensity formula for a system of retardation plates. Journal of the Optical Society of America 37: 99-106 (1947).
- Inoue, S. Studies on depolarization of light at microscope lens surfaces. I. The origin of stray light by rotation at the lens surface. Experimental Cell Research 3: 199-208 (1952).
- Inoue, S., Knudson, R. A., Goda, M., Suzuki, K., Nagano, C., Okada, N., Takahashi, H., Ichie, K., Lida, M. and Yamanaka, K. Centrifuge polarizing microscope. I. Rationale, design and instrument performance. Journal of Microscopy 201: 341-356 (2001).
- Inoue, S. and Kubota, H. Diffraction anomaly in polarizing microscopes. Nature 18 : 1725-1726 (1958).
- Inoue, S. and Sato, H. Arrangement of DNA in living sperm: A biophysical analysis.Science 29: 1122-1124 (1962).
- Ishagami, M., Nagai, R. and Kuroda, K. A polarized light and electron microscopic study of the birefringent fibrils in Physarum plasmodia. Protoplasma 109: 91-102 (1981).
- Jerrard, H. Optical compensators for measurement of elliptical polarization. Journal of the Optical Society of America 38: 35-59 (1948).
- Keefe, D., Tran, P., Pellegrini, C. and Oldenbourg, R. Polarized light microscopy and digital image processing identify a multilaminar structure of the hamster zona pellucida. Human Reproduction 12: 1250-1252 (1997).
- Kubota, H. and Inoue, S. Diffraction images in the polarizing microscope. Journal of the Optical Society of America 49: 191-198 (1959).
- Liu, L., Oldenbourg, R., Trimarchi, J. and Keefe, D. A reliable, noninvasive technique for spindle imaging and enucleation of mammalian oocytes. Nature Biotechnology 18: 223-225 (2000).
- Maestre, M. and Kilkson, R. Intrinsic birefringence of multiple-coiled DNA, theory and applications. Biophysical Journal 5: 275-287 (1965).
- Makas, A. Film polarizer for visible and ultraviolet radiation. Journal of the Optical Society of America 52: 43-44 (1962).
- Morimoto, A., Matsunaga, S., Kurihara, D. and Fukui, K. Visualization of mitotic HeLa cells by advanced polarized light microscopy. Micron 39: 635-638 (2008).
- Oldenbourg, R. Analysis of edge birefringence. Biophysical Journal 60: 629-641 (1991).
- Oldenbourg, R. Polarized light field microscopy: An analytical method using a microlens array to simultaneously capture both conoscopic and orthoscopic views of birefringent objects. Journal of Microscopy 231: 419-432 (2008).
- Oldenbourg, R. and Ruiz, T. Birefringence of macromolecules. Wiener's theory revisited, with applications to DNA and tobacco mosaic virus. Biophysical Journal 56: 195-205 (1989).
- Oldenbourg, R., Salmon, E. and Tran, P. Birefringence of single and bundled microtubules.Biophysical Journal 74: 645-654 (1998).
- Oldenbourg, R. and Torok, P. Point-spread functions of a polarizing microscope equipped with high-numerical-aperture lenses. Applied Optics 39: 6325-6331 (2000).
- Pelletier, C., Keefe, D. and Trimarchi, J. Noninvasive polarized light microscopy quantitatively distinguishes the multilaminar structure of the zona pellucida of living human eggs and embryos. Fertility and Sterility 81: 850-856 (2004).
- Rebhun, L., Rosenbaum, J., Lefebvre, P. and Smith, G. Reversible restoration of the birefringence of cold-treated, isolated mitotic apparatus of surf clam eggs with chicken brain tubulin. Nature 249: 113-115 (1974).
- Richartz, M. and Hsu, Y. Analysis of elliptical polarization. Journal of the Optical Society of America 39: 136-157 (1949).
- Rosenberg, S., Quinlan, M., Forkey, J. and Goldman, Y. Rotational motions of macro-molecules by single molecule fluorescence microscopy. Accounts of Chemical Research38: 583-593 (2005).
- Ruiz, T. and Oldenbourg, R. Birefringence of tropomyosin crystals. Biophysical Journal 54:17-24 (1988).
- Shen, Y., Betzendahl, I., Tinneberg, H. R. and Eichenlaub-Ritter, U. Enhanced polarizing microscopy as a new tool in aneuploidy research in oocytes. Mutation Research 651: 131-140 (2008).
- Shribak, M., Inoue, S. and Oldenbourg, R. Polarization aberrations caused by differential transmission and phase shift in high-numerical-aperture lenses: theory, measurement, and rectification. Optical Engineering 41: 943-954 (2002).
- Shribak, M. and Oldenbourg, R. 3D imaging properties of a polarized light microscope revealed by birefringence measurements of small calcite crystals. Proceedings of SPIE4261: 81-91 (2001).
- Shribak, M. and Oldenbourg, R. Techniques for fast and sensitive measurements of two-dimensional birefringence distributions. Applied Optics 42: 3009-3017 (2003).
- Shribak, M. and Oldenbourg, R. Mapping polymer birefringence in 3D using a polarizing microscope with oblique illumination. Proceedings of SPIE 5462: 57-67 (2004).
- Smalyukh, I., Shiyanovskii, S. and Lavrentovich, O. D. Three-dimensional imaging of orientational order by fluorescence confocal polarizing microscopy. Chemical Physics Letters 336: 88-96 (2001).
- Taylor, D. Birefringence changes in vertebrate striated muscle. Journal of Supramolecular Structure 3: 181-191 (1975).
- Torok, P., Higdon, P. D. and Wilson, T. Polarized light microscopy. Proceedings of SPIE3261: 22-26 (1998).
- Turnhout, M., Kranenbarg, S. and van Leeuwen, J. Modeling optical behavior of birefringent biological tissues for evaluation of quantitative polarized microscopy. Journal of Biomedical Optics 14: 054018 (2009).
- West, C. and Jones, C. On the properties of polarization elements as used in optical instruments. I. Fundamental considerations. Journal of the Optical Society of America 41:976-980 (1951).
Books and Book Chapters
- Murphy, D. Polarization microscopy. in Fundamentals of Light Microscopy and Digital Imaging, Wiley-Liss, New York, pages 135-154 (2001).
- Rost, F. and Oldfield R. Polarisation, phase contrast and DIC. in Photography with a Microscope, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, pages 127-136 (2000).
- Bradbury, S. and Evennett, P. Polarized light techniques. in Contrast Techniques in Light Microscopy, BIOS Scientific Publishers, Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom, pages 49-58 (1996).